I. PWT Content - Details
To assess your ability to be a critical reader (i.e. identifying strong and/or weak points in a text) using some of the concepts discussed in The Little Brown Compact Handbook Sections 11a & 11b (pp. 95-102):
- Syllogisms
- Inductive/ deductive conclusions
- A reasonable argument
- Recognizing claims and assumptions in an argument
- Strong vs. weak evidence
- Expert opinion, Emotional appeals, Facts and statistics
- Fallacies
No. of Questions - Details
There are two types of questions in this exam:
Part A: Nine comprehension questions.
Part B: Thirteen application questions. You will read several short passages, and then evaluate their strengths and/or weaknesses.
II. Basics on understanding and writing a reasonable argument (Adapted from Hacker, "A Writer's Reference")- A reasonable argument
- Expert opinion, Emotional appeals, Facts and statistics
| Introduction You know there is a debatable issue. This means there are two or more reasonable ways to view this issue. So people might disagree about the right way to view the issue. The issue might be a problem that needs a solution. It might be a confusing idea that needs explanation. Your goal is to convince your readers that your solution or explanation is the correct one. You do this by showing you understand the issue very well and have the best solution. | 3) In your introduction, establish credibility and state your thesis. Why should your readers believe you? Because you are credible—believable. You have studied the issue and understand it well. Convince them that you have enough knowledge of the issue and that you are fair-minded. That is, you are open-minded. You are willing to discuss the issue with people who disagree with you. Stating your thesis means you clarify what the issue is and tells the reader what your position is, in simple terms. That way, your position is easy to see and consider. Don’t make the reader try to figure out your position by reading between the lines. Be clear and open about what you believe to be true. | 6) Anticipate objections; countering opposing arguments. Again, it’s important to know your audience. You have to know what they already believe about the issue. To convince them, you have to show that you know their side too. Prepare to answer objections as you imagine the reader raising them as they read your argument. Again, it’s important to be seen as fair-minded and knowledgeable. |
| 1) Examine your issue’s social and intellectual context. Every issue exists in a social context. That means that certain people in society are especially concerned about this issue. Every issue exists in an intellectual context. That means that certain people are thinking about it. Who are they and what do they think? You are going to be writing to these people, trying to convince them that your understanding of the issue is true. You need to understand who your audience is, and what they already think about this issue. | 4) Back up your thesis with persuasive lines of argument. Reasonable arguments in English are linear. That means they go in straight lines from introduction to conclusion. The thesis is stated in the introduction and then good reasons are given, one after another, to support the thesis. | 7) Build common ground. This was covered a bit in 3). If you show the readers that you share some of their values, they will be more open to your ideas. Readers also want to believe that they are intelligent and decent. If you show that your position is the intelligent, decent position on the issue, readers will be more readily convinced and willing to share your position. |
| 2) View your audience as a panel of jurors. After they listen to all your reasons, they are going to decide if your understanding of the issue is true. They are skeptical until they have finished reading your argument. They are suspending belief. So you must convince them—give them a basis for belief in your ideas. Therefore, you must first do 1) well—know your audience and know what they think already. | 5) Support your claims with specific evidence. You want your reader to believe you. You must give them a basis for believing you so that you overcome their skepticism. Therefore, you must support your thesis with good reasons, and support your reasons with specific evidence. Documenting, or citing outside evidence gives readers the opportunity to check the evidence themselves and see if it’s credible. Kinds of evidence: Facts and statistics. A fact is something usually accepted as true by everyone because it has been verified historically or scientifically. People don’t usually argue with facts. A statistic is a numerical fact—a number. Percentages, population numbers, amounts of money, etc. Examples and illustrations. These, working together with facts and statistics give a human element to an argument. Sometimes the reader can identify emotionally with an example much easier than a fact. Expert opinion. Use arguments that experts have made to show that you have experts on your side who have studied the issue too, and agree with your position. This adds credibility. | 8) Assumptions Unlike claims and evidence which are always stated outright, assumptions are (usually) unstated. Assumptions are ideas or beliefs that are thought to be true, but not proved. Assumptions tie the evidence to the claims, and must be accepted if the whole argument is to be considered true. 9) + NP (Homan) 1) Definition of argument 2) Four main elements a. Subject b. Claims c. Evidence 1. Facts 2. Statistics 3. Examples 4. Expert opinions 5. Appeals to readers’ beliefs or needs d. Assumptions3) Induction 4) Deduction 5) Points to be aware of when making an argument: Emotional appeals-- a. Insulting words c. Sarcasm d. Exclamation points |
10) Summary of AC/AI Class Study Guide: A Reasonable Argument
| Features of a Reasonable (i.e. good) Argument | 4. Credibility Credibility is the quality that something makes people believe or trust it. If you have it, people believe you. It is important that you are open-minded. (Mai) The credibility is essential element for argumentation. It is used to convince readers that you have enough knowledge of the issue and that you are open-minded. Using expert opinion is helpful to add credibility to your argumentation.(Chihiro) The credibility is believable when you have enough knowledge of the issue. (Kanako) | 8. Objections A reason why you do not like or are opposed to something; a statement about this. Objections are opposing arguments your audience already believe about the issue.You have to know and prepare to answer objections in order to convince them of your ideas. (Keiko) Objection give the image of own argument to reader by preparing between objection and own argument. (Natsumi) |
| 1. Issue (LBH, the subject, p. 95) Good issue is a problem or idea that can be or will be discussed and is limited enough to research and argue. Writers have to understand the issue and the audience's belief about that to convince the audience. The issue is a controversial problem to be examined and solved in suitable time and space. Issue, especially a good issue, is a controversial idea or problem which is to be explained or solved. Every issue exists in a social and intellectual context. (Kensuke) The issue is a starter of an argument and it is open to discussion with the space and time available. (Kentaro) | 5. Expert opinion If you can show that expert has similar opinion, your credibility is improved. Expert opinion is a verdict by the authority who studies in the field and has good reasons to support. By quoting expert opinion, we can make our own opinions be added credibility. | 9. Assumptions (LBH, p. 97) An explanation of the connection between a claim and an evidence. An assumption is a thing which relates evidence to a claim. In order to understand your argument, readers need to interpret your assumption |
| 2. Thesis (LBH, claims, p. 96) Thesis is an idea or an opinion showing the readers what the issue is, and telling them what author's opinion is. It is supported by reasons. It is often stated in the introduction. Thesis is an opinion based on facts and arguable on the basis of facts. The thesis means you clarify what the issue is and tells the reader what your position is, in simple terms. (Ayumi) The thesis is argument or opinion. In essay, people use it as main subject. So it is needed in essay. | 6. Statistics Statistic is the fact that making people believe in using number, percentages, population numbers, amounts of money, etc. It is working together with examples, illustrations and facts. Good statistic is the specific evidence which supports our claims to make readers believe us. It represents a numerical fact by using a number, percentages, population numbers, amounts of money, etc. Statistics is a kind of example shown in numbers. Statistics is a numerical and strong fact that is likely to be accepted as truth. | 10. Common ground Showing that our issues concerns the reader. |
| 3. Reasons/Evidence (5-8 opposite, LBH, evidence p. 96) Reasons are important to make people decide whether your understanding of issues are true or not. For that reasons must have evidence such as facts, statistics, examples and so on. Good reason make audience convinced. (Tommy) The reasons are evidence include facts, statistics, examples, expert opinions, appeals to readers' beliefs or needs for supporting the claim, opinion.(Ryuichi) The reasons make your opinion obvious and have strong similarity to the credibility, they make you reliable.(Kota) | 7. Examples or illustrations Missing details - students responsible did not do this section. | |
III. Logical Fallacies
1) NP (Homan)
Below is a basic outline of the fallacies were covered--
Evasions:
a. Begging the Question
b. Non Sequitur
c. Red Herring
d. Appeal to fear or pity
Other fallacies not covered in NP--
e. Bandwagon
f. Ad hominem
See: LBH pp. 100 - 101
Oversimplifications:
g. Hasty generalisation iii. If there weren't so many beer vending machines, there would be much less teenage drinking.
h. Sweeping generalisation ii. Mariko got into Tokyo University, so she must be smart.
i. Reductive fallacy
j. Post hoc fallacy i. No wonder the movie is popular, Jet Li is in it.
h. Either/ or fallacy
See: LBH pp. 101 - 102
2) Critical Analysis - simple arguments - Spot the Fallacies - ANSWER KEY
A. Map the claim, evidence, & assumption
B. Identify which of the following arguments contain errors. Name the error (the fallacy) present e.g. sweeping generalisation (Use LBH 100-102)
1. A truly successful marriage demands a maturity that few people under twenty-five possess. valid assumption (qualified by ‘few’)
2. Since all kittens have fur and this animal has fur, it must be a kitten. fallacious—conclusion does not follow - non sequitur (Latin: "It does not follow")
3. Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit on the head in order to make them work, so must employees. fallacious—non sequitur
4. My sister Gloria is convinced that superstition can be a positive force. “It gives you a sense of control by making you think you can work out what's going to happen next,” she says. “And it also makes you feel lucky. To take a risk or to enter into a chancy situation, you really have to believe in your own luck. In that sense, it's a very useful way of thinking, because the alternative is fatalism, which is to say, ‘Oh, there's nothing I can do.’ At least superstition makes people do things.” fallacious—either or
5. According to a local plumber, John Smith, the Toto® toilet is the best in the world in terms of flushability, water savings and resale value. valid—expert opinion
6. German people aren't good at dancing. Greta is German, so she’s a bad dancer. fallacious—stereotype
7. A good student is like a cat. Cats, like good students, are curious but skeptical. Cats also remain aloof until they are convinced by good evidence that something is reliable. Most of all, cats are loyal and friendly if you give them food to eat and if you drop them, they always land on their feet. They really like it when you scratch behind their ears. However, if you step on their tails, they don’t like that. fallacious—non sequitur (breaks down towards the end)
8. I asked three of my friends what they thought of the new classroom building that will be built next year, and they agreed it is a good idea. The plan is therefore generally popular. fallacious—hasty generalization
9. If we don't drill for more oil, we will have an energy crisis. fallacious—either or
10. A large number students were late for class during C-week, including many students who are never late. The slightly different schedule is most likely the cause of most of the late arrivals. valid—cause and effect (qualified by ‘many’ ‘most’ and ‘most likely’)
11. John has been proven to be a liar numerous times, so I don't accept John's arguments about capital punishment. fallacious—ad hominem
12. Overweight smokers often have heart disease. valid—assumption/cause and effect (qualified by ‘often’)
13. People watch television because they are too lazy to talk or read or because they want mindless escape from their lives. fallacious—either or
14. Racial tension frequently occurs when people with different backgrounds are forced to live side by side in extreme conditions. valid—assumption (qualified by ‘frequently’)
15. Students’ persistent complaints about the grading system prove that it is unfair. fallacious—bandwagon
16. Most Asian young people in America tend be very good students. Statistics show that Asians, particularly the children of immigrants, outperform other minorities in all academic areas. valid (qualified by ‘most’ and ‘tend to’)
17. Tens of thousands of Japanese have seen lights in the night sky which they could not identify. The existence of life on other planets is fast becoming certainty! fallacious—cause and effect? argument with missing claim?
18. That type of car is poorly made; a friend of mine has one, and it continually gives him trouble. fallacious—hasty generalization
19. Tomoko is riding her bike in Tokyo. A car comes up behind her and the driver starts beeping his horn and then tries to force her off the road. As it speeds passes her, she sees that the car has a Wakayama license plate and concludes that all Wakayama drivers are jerks. fallacious—hasty generalization
20. We need a strong military in order to deter our enemies. If you don't support this new spending bill to develop better airplanes, our enemies will think we are weak and, at some point, will attack us - killing millions. fallacious—either or
21. Who cares what you think about movies? You're just an ignorant American who doesn't know anything about real culture. fallacious—ad hominem
22. Atheism is an evil philosophy. It is practised by Communists and murderers. fallacious—ad hominem
23. Cell phone use should be outlawed while driving because this behavior causes accidents. In fact, in the past year in Los Angeles it was determined to be a major cause in over 30,000 accidents. According to Ben Gibson of the Insurance Investigation Bureau, it is by far the single leading cause of automobile accidents. valid argument based on statistics and expert opinion
24. "Smoking cigarettes is dangerous, but nearly everything in life has some danger, such as driving a car or crossing the street. So, if you are willing to drive a car, you should also be willing to smoke." fallacious—non sequitur
25. In a recent survey at ICU, 450 first year students replied that Program Wide Tests were a major source of stress and should be eliminated. This common opinion should be taken into account when curriculum changes are being considered this fall. valid—inductive reasoning based on sufficient, representative, relevant evidence, tempered with a qualified conclusion.
Other fallacies not covered in NP--
e. Bandwagon
f. Ad hominem
See: LBH pp. 100 - 101
Oversimplifications:
g. Hasty generalisation iii. If there weren't so many beer vending machines, there would be much less teenage drinking.
h. Sweeping generalisation ii. Mariko got into Tokyo University, so she must be smart.
i. Reductive fallacy
j. Post hoc fallacy i. No wonder the movie is popular, Jet Li is in it.
h. Either/ or fallacy
See: LBH pp. 101 - 102
2) Critical Analysis - simple arguments - Spot the Fallacies - ANSWER KEY
A. Map the claim, evidence, & assumption
B. Identify which of the following arguments contain errors. Name the error (the fallacy) present e.g. sweeping generalisation (Use LBH 100-102)
1. A truly successful marriage demands a maturity that few people under twenty-five possess. valid assumption (qualified by ‘few’)
2. Since all kittens have fur and this animal has fur, it must be a kitten. fallacious—conclusion does not follow - non sequitur (Latin: "It does not follow")
3. Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit on the head in order to make them work, so must employees. fallacious—non sequitur
4. My sister Gloria is convinced that superstition can be a positive force. “It gives you a sense of control by making you think you can work out what's going to happen next,” she says. “And it also makes you feel lucky. To take a risk or to enter into a chancy situation, you really have to believe in your own luck. In that sense, it's a very useful way of thinking, because the alternative is fatalism, which is to say, ‘Oh, there's nothing I can do.’ At least superstition makes people do things.” fallacious—either or
5. According to a local plumber, John Smith, the Toto® toilet is the best in the world in terms of flushability, water savings and resale value. valid—expert opinion
6. German people aren't good at dancing. Greta is German, so she’s a bad dancer. fallacious—stereotype
7. A good student is like a cat. Cats, like good students, are curious but skeptical. Cats also remain aloof until they are convinced by good evidence that something is reliable. Most of all, cats are loyal and friendly if you give them food to eat and if you drop them, they always land on their feet. They really like it when you scratch behind their ears. However, if you step on their tails, they don’t like that. fallacious—non sequitur (breaks down towards the end)
8. I asked three of my friends what they thought of the new classroom building that will be built next year, and they agreed it is a good idea. The plan is therefore generally popular. fallacious—hasty generalization
9. If we don't drill for more oil, we will have an energy crisis. fallacious—either or
10. A large number students were late for class during C-week, including many students who are never late. The slightly different schedule is most likely the cause of most of the late arrivals. valid—cause and effect (qualified by ‘many’ ‘most’ and ‘most likely’)
11. John has been proven to be a liar numerous times, so I don't accept John's arguments about capital punishment. fallacious—ad hominem
12. Overweight smokers often have heart disease. valid—assumption/cause and effect (qualified by ‘often’)
13. People watch television because they are too lazy to talk or read or because they want mindless escape from their lives. fallacious—either or
14. Racial tension frequently occurs when people with different backgrounds are forced to live side by side in extreme conditions. valid—assumption (qualified by ‘frequently’)
15. Students’ persistent complaints about the grading system prove that it is unfair. fallacious—bandwagon
16. Most Asian young people in America tend be very good students. Statistics show that Asians, particularly the children of immigrants, outperform other minorities in all academic areas. valid (qualified by ‘most’ and ‘tend to’)
17. Tens of thousands of Japanese have seen lights in the night sky which they could not identify. The existence of life on other planets is fast becoming certainty! fallacious—cause and effect? argument with missing claim?
18. That type of car is poorly made; a friend of mine has one, and it continually gives him trouble. fallacious—hasty generalization
19. Tomoko is riding her bike in Tokyo. A car comes up behind her and the driver starts beeping his horn and then tries to force her off the road. As it speeds passes her, she sees that the car has a Wakayama license plate and concludes that all Wakayama drivers are jerks. fallacious—hasty generalization
20. We need a strong military in order to deter our enemies. If you don't support this new spending bill to develop better airplanes, our enemies will think we are weak and, at some point, will attack us - killing millions. fallacious—either or
21. Who cares what you think about movies? You're just an ignorant American who doesn't know anything about real culture. fallacious—ad hominem
22. Atheism is an evil philosophy. It is practised by Communists and murderers. fallacious—ad hominem
23. Cell phone use should be outlawed while driving because this behavior causes accidents. In fact, in the past year in Los Angeles it was determined to be a major cause in over 30,000 accidents. According to Ben Gibson of the Insurance Investigation Bureau, it is by far the single leading cause of automobile accidents. valid argument based on statistics and expert opinion
24. "Smoking cigarettes is dangerous, but nearly everything in life has some danger, such as driving a car or crossing the street. So, if you are willing to drive a car, you should also be willing to smoke." fallacious—non sequitur
25. In a recent survey at ICU, 450 first year students replied that Program Wide Tests were a major source of stress and should be eliminated. This common opinion should be taken into account when curriculum changes are being considered this fall. valid—inductive reasoning based on sufficient, representative, relevant evidence, tempered with a qualified conclusion.
IV. Critical Analysis - complex argument
Article: "Deletion of English from Entrance Exams Urged" (Daily Yomiuri)
| In a bid to take the dread out of learning the language, English should be eliminated from entrance examinations for high schools and universities, a member of an advisory panel to the education minister said Wednesday. | The entrance examination system has already diversified and can be reformed without changing the current system, one panelist said. Reactions by experts have been mixed. "At the middle school level. it is enough to introduce simple English questions that measure whether a student can shop or order a meal at a restaurant," said Yachiyo International University Prof. Toshi Marks. "For this reason. English should be deleted from high school entrance examinations. At the high‑school level, English should be regarded as one of many foreign languages, and university entrance examinations should just check a student's grasp of English expressions and reading skill levels," she said. Marks said the training of English teachers should be reformed to change the nation's English education System. "Simply deleting English from entrance examinations will not necessarily mean that students will like learning English any more than they do now, said Yoshihisa Miyakawa, a professor at Ochanomizu University and author of a vocabulary book popular with students studying for university examinations. "If English is dropped from entrance examinations, some students will not be able to keep up with the rest of the class after entering higher education," he said. "Criticized practices, such as the memorization of words, are fundamental ways of increasing knowledge of English," he added. According to a survey conducted in March 1995 by the National Institute for Educational Research covering 17,060 elementary, middle and high school students in six prefectures, 40 percent of middle school senior students listed English as a subject they disliked following mathematics. Nearly one in three students in other grades also said they disliked English. |
| Basic Analysis | Critical Evaluation |
| 1) The three basic parts of the argument are: a. Claim: Japanese students hate English b. Evidence: It is included in the entrance examinations c. Assumption: Students would like English if it was not on entrance exams. | 2) Use your critical thinking skills to critically evaluate this argument: a. What kind of evidence is given? b. Are the people supplying the evidence in an authoritative position? c. Is the establishment of evidence reliable? Why/why not? d. Is the survey information or results complete? Why/why not? e. Does Tamura have enough facts to support his claim? Why/why not? f. How persuasive is this argument? g. How reliable is the evidence? Is it specific? Is it factual? Is there enough? h. How credible is the assumption? Does it tie the evidence to the claim? i. Can you find a "fallacy" in this argument? Is so, explain what it is. |
3) A critically analysis of this argument. Based on ideas from above and the analysis notes below.
Sample pre-writing notes:
| Tamura: English should be eliminated from entrance examinations for high schools and universities. Many students dislike English because it is included in entrance examinations. If English is removed from entrance examinations, English education at middle and high schools would change for the better. English should be taught because it is an important language, not because it is an entrance examination subject. English should be measured by other methods. | Analysts: English education in Japan has yet to give students skills that are applicable to the real world. | Marks: The training of English should be reformed to change the nation's English education system. | Miyakawa: Simply deleting English from entrance examinations will not necessarily mean that students will like learning English any more than they do now. If English is dropped from entrance examinations, some students will not be able to keep up with the rest of the class after entering higher education. Criticized practices, such as the memorization of words, are fundamental ways of increasing knowledge of English. Sample Critical Analysis: "Deletion of English from Entrance Exams Urged" |
Sample Critical Analysis - "Deletion of English from Entrance Exams Urged"
The argument presented for dropping English from entrance examinations is weak in several ways. First, the evidence given to support the claim that "English should be eliminated from entrance examinations for high schools and universities is neither reliable nor specific. Tetsuo Tamara, president of Shibuya Kyoiku Gakuen was quoted as saying that "what has caused many students to dislike English so intensely is that it is included in entrance examinations." Even though Tamura may have authority, this is only his personal opinion. There are no facts or hard evidence to stand behind the claim. The real reasons may be due to teaching materials, the teachers and or the class environment. The only other evidence was a survey done by the National Institute for Educational Research. Although the survey includes a large sample of students, the finding are meaningless. It told us that "students listed English as a subject they dislike", but it does not state reasons why, therefore this evidence is not reliable enough to support the claim. Next, the assumption "if English is removed from entrance examinations, English education at middle and high schools would change for the better", is not credible. How can we be sure that this will be the outcome? Again it is a personal opinion gathered from unreliable evidence. Finally, it seems that the argument is focused on false cause. We are led to believe that the cause for the dislike of English in high schools is because it is tested on the entrance examinations. The argument simply assumes this cause-effect relationship instead of presenting evidence. For these reasons this argument is not valid.
V. NP (Fukao) Propaganda and news media
Purpose: to raise students' awareness toward information they encounter in their everyday life.
The lecture first showed many war propaganda posters, pictures, and some advertisements, and asked students whether they thought they were propaganda or not. Various definitions of propaganda were then introduced to show that there is no agreed upon definition of the term.
Then the lecture examined whether or not news can be considered as propaganda.
The main part of the lecture focused on explaining the model developed by Herman and Chomsky. They developed a model called "The Propaganda Model" in 80's, the main claim of that is that there are systematic biases in the news media. The possible news materials go through 5 filters before they get printed or broadcast, and these filters serve to create the biases. They are 1) corporate ownership of the media, 2) advertising as the main funding source, 3) government and business as the major sources of news, 4) negative responses and pressure to the media content from corporations, and 5) anti-communism ideology (=unchallenged ideology).
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